2009 Buddhist Holidays

[There is no one Buddhist calendar. Zen Buddhist holidays (with roots in Japan) are based on the Japanese ( Gregorian) calendar and have fixed dates. Tibetan Buddhist holidays (also referred to as Vajrayana Buddhist holidays and Tantric Buddhist holidays) (with roots in Tibet) are based on the unique Tibetan lunisolar calendar. The Tibetan New Year begins just after, or a month following, the Chinese New Year. The Chinese month begins on the day of the New Moon; the Tibetan month begins the day following the New Moon. Chinese Mahayana Buddhist holidays are based on the Chinese lunisolar calendar and are calculated based on Chinese time. Pursuant to prevailing practice, Tibetan Buddhist holidays are calculated based on Universal time. Those who wish to practice according to local time may need to make adjustments. Due to the necessity of "missing days" in the Tibetan calendar, some holidays (e.g. Tara Pujas) may be celebrated one day earlier/later on the Gregorian calendar than the date given. Though some Tibetan Buddhist holidays occur annually, many occur fortnightly or monthly. Theravada Buddhist holidays (with roots in Sri Lanka and Thailand) are based on a Theravada lunisolar calendar and are also calculated based on Universal Time.]

* 1/3: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful of the peace, joy, and beauty of the moment.

* 1/4: Day for meditation on Tantric Buddha Deities Amitayus and White Tara, who grant good health and long life. Buddhists study sacred texts, meditate, pray, chant mantras, and make devotional offerings to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. [White Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Mama Ayu Punya Jnana Pushtim Kuru Svaha] [Amitayus Mantra: Om Amarani Jivan Tiye Svaha] [Medicine Buddha Mantra: Om Bhaisajye Bhaisajye Mahabhaisajye Bhaisajye Raja Samudgate Svaha] [a/k/a Amitayus Buddha Day, Tara Puja, Medicine Buddha Day, 8th Tibetan day]

* 1/6: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 1/11: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 1/18: World Religions Day--Day to contemplate all religions as different paths to the one universal Deity of many names and aspects.

* 1/19: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 1/26: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 1/26 to 1/29: Hsih Nien/Suhl/Tet--Chinese and East Asian Lunar New Year (Year 4707: the Ox).

* 2/3: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 2/4: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 2/7: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that you, and all that is, are in the process of transformation.

* 2/9: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 2/15: Nehan--Zen Buddhist celebration of the Buddha's paranirvana (483 BCE). The Buddha taught an eight-fold path to enlightenment - right views, right aspiration, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right contemplation. [563-483 BCE: exact dates unknown] [Forms of Buddhism include Theravada, Tantra (Tibetan), and Mahayana (Zen and Pure Land).]

* 2/19: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 2/23: Sojong Day--Tibetan Buddhist day of fasting, confession, and reparation for harm done. [Observed primarily by monks and nuns.] [a/k/a Sojong Chemno]

* 2/24: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 2/25 to 3/11: Losar/Tibetan Buddhist New Year (Year 2136: the Earth Ox) & Monlam Chenmo/Great Prayer Festival--Commemorates miracles performed by the Buddha. Rituals, dances, and sculptures are offered to drive out evil spirits and to protect and benefit all sentient beings.

* 3/4: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 3/6: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 3/7: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that you are connected to each and every sentient being that has ever existed.

* 3/11: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 3/15: Mahayana Buddhist festival of Bodhisattva Tara/Kuan Yin/Kannon; celebrates Her "birth." She declared women the spiritual equals of men. [2nd Chinese month, 19th day]

* 3/21: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 3/21: Haru-no-Higan--Day Japanese Buddhists mark the time of change by meditating on the impermanence of death. [a/k/a Ohigan]

* 3/26: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 4/3: Day for meditation on Tantric Bodhisattva Deities Avalokitesvara and Green Tara, consciousness and empowerment of Compassion. Buddhists recognize the equality of all sentient beings. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [Avalokitesvara Mantra: Om Mani Padmi Hum] [a/k/a Tara Puja, 8th Tibetan day]

* 4/4: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 4/4: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that the joys and suffering of others are your joys and suffering.

* 4/8: Zen Buddhist celebration of the Buddha's birth (563 BCE). [563-483 BCE: exact dates unknown]

* 4/9: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 4/20: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 4/22: Earth Day--Day to honor the Earth and to meditate on Deity manifesting as Mother Earth. [a/k/a International Earth Day, National Earth Day] [For information about Earth Day activities, see Earthday Network website; Envirolink website; U.S. government website for Earth Day; U.S. E.P.A. website for Earth Day.]

* 4/25: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 5/2: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 5/2: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that everything you do, or fail to do, affects all sentient beings.

* 5/4: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 5/9: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 5/19: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 5/24: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 5/31: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 6/2: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 6/6: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for mindfully seeing the interdependence of all things at all times.

* 6/7 (Ch B 5/2, Th B 5/9): Saga Dawa Duchen--Tibetan Buddhist festival celebrating the birth, enlightenment, and parinirvana of Buddha Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE). [a/k/a Wesak, Vesak, Vesakha Puja, Visakha Puja, Budh Purnima, Buddha Jayanti] [Tib B: 4th Tibetan month, 15th day; Ch B: 4th Chinese month, 8th day; Th B: May UT Full Moon day]

* 6/7: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 6/18: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 6/22: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 6/30: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 7/2: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 7/4: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that alienation and hunger for possessions results from ignorance of interconnectedness.

* 7/4 to 7/11: Mahayana Buddhist festival of Tara/Kuan Yin/Kannon, Supreme Goddess of Nature and Perfect Buddha of many emanations; celebrates Her enlightenment and Her vow to help all sentient beings. [Buddhists act daily on their vows to help all sentient beings.] [6th Chinese month, 12th to 19th days]

* 7/7: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 7/13 to 7/15: Obon--Zen Buddhist festival honoring departed ancestors. [a/k/a Bon]

* 7/17: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 7/22: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 7/25 (Th B 7/7): Chokhor Duchen--Tibetan Buddhist celebration of the Buddha's first teaching. [Theravadin Buddhist festival a/k/a Esala, Ashala Dhamma, Asalha Puja] [Tib B: 6th Tibetan month, 4th day; Th B: July UT Full Moon day]

* 7/29: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 7/31: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 8/1: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that desire for power over others results from ignorance of interdependence.

* 8/5: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 8/15: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 8/20: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 8/28: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 8/30: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 9/4: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 9/5: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that harm to the Earth and sentient beings results from ignorance of interdependence.

* 9/14: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 9/18: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 9/23: Aki-no-Higan--Day Japanese Buddhists mark the time of change by meditating on the impermanence of life. [a/k/a Ohigan]

* 9/26: Day for meditation on Tantric Bodhisattva Goddess Gold Tara, provider of all sustenance and necessities. [Gold Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Pushtim Kuru Om] [a/k/a Tara Puja, 8th Tibetan day]

* 9/28: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 10/3: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for being mindful that fear and hatred of others results from ignorance of interconnectedness.

* 10/4: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 10/5: Day honoring Zen Buddhist philosopher Bodhidharma (470-543), who believed one could attain Buddhahood by realizing one's own Buddha nature. [a/k/a Bodhidharma Day]

* 10/7: Mahayana Buddhist festival of Bodhisattva Tara/Kuan Yin/Kannon; celebrates Her attainment of Bodhisattvahood. Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are aspects of Adi-Buddha - the masculine and feminine, transcendent and immanent, omniscient and omnipotent, primordial and eternal Absolute. [9th Chinese month, 19th day]

* 10/13: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 10/18: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 10/26: Tara Puja--Tibetan Buddhist fast of Bodhisattva Goddess Tara. All are equal in Her circles; She is worshipped with meditations on mandalas and chanting of mantra. [Green Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Svaha] [8th Tibetan day]

* 10/28: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 11/2: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 11/7: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for mindfully seeing and acting with compassion for the Earth and all creatures.

* 11/9: Lha Bab Duchen--Day Tibetan Buddhists celebrate the Buddha's descent from heaven after teaching the Dharma there. [9th Tibetan month, 22nd day]

* 11/11: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 11/16: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 11/25: Day for meditation on Tantric Bodhisattva Goddess White Tara, who guides the dead to Buddha Amitabha's Pure Land, where all will find salvation. [White Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Ture Mama Ayu Punya Jnana Pushtim Kuru Svaha] [a/k/a Tara Puja, 8th Tibetan day]

* 11/27: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 12/2: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

* 12/5: Mindfulness Day--Zen Buddhist day for mindfully seeing and acting with compassion for the poor and oppressed.

* 12/8: Rohatsu--Zen Buddhist celebration of the Buddha's enlightenment. [a/k/a Bodhi Day]

* 12/11: Dakinis' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Mother Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Mother Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 25th Tibetan day]

* 12/11: Day for meditation on Tantric Bodhisattva Deities Manjusri and Prajna-Paramita, consciousness and empowerment of Wisdom. Prajna-Paramita is considered Mother of All Buddhas. [Prajna-Paramita Mantra: Om Namo Bhagavatyai Aryaprajnaparamitayai] [Manjusri Mantra: Om Ah Ra Pa Ca Na Dhih] [10th Tibetan month, 25th day]

* 12/16: Shakyamuni Buddha Day--Day Tibetan Buddhists meditate on the Buddha's teachings and strive to fulfill the Precepts. [Shakyamuni Mantra: Om Muni Muni Mahamuni Shakyamuni Svaha] [a/k/a Siddhartha Buddha Day, 30th Tibetan day, UT New Moon day]

* 12/24: Day for meditation on Tantric Bodhisattva Goddess Red Tara, protector against evil and harm. [Red Tara Mantra: Om Tare Tuttare Santa Ra Hri Svaha] [a/k/a Tara Puja, 8th Tibetan day]

* 12/26: Dakas' Day--Day Tantric Buddhists make offerings to Father Tantra; day to unite will and power to manifest positive social change and environmental healing. [Observed primarily by Tantric initiates.] [a/k/a Father Tantra Puja, Tsog, Tsok, 10th Tibetan day]

* 12/31: Amitabha Buddha Day--Day Tibetan and Mahayana Buddhists do good deeds and chant the name of Buddha God Amitabha/Omito/Amida to gain entry to His Pure Land and aid in attaining nirvana. [Amitabha Mantra: Om Amideva Hrih] [15th Tibetan day, UT Full Moon day]

Excerpted from THE MYSTIC'S WHEEL OF THE YEAR 2009 A Multifaith Calendar Reflecting Eco-Egalitarian Spirituality © 2008 Page Two, Inc.

Ten Ethnic Minority Spring Festival Celebrations

Spring Festival, celebrated at Lunar New Year, is as joyful an occasion in China as Christmas is in the West. Each ethnic minority of the Chinese Nationality, along with the Han Ethnic Group, has its customary way of celebrating the holiday.

Tibetan Ethnic Group
Tibetans welcome the Lunar New Year grotesquely masked and brightly attired. Young men perform a spinning dance as they sing for blessings in the coming year, to the accompaniment of a large drum and fanfares on bugle and conch. On New Year's morning, women fetch the "propitious water" that brings blessings to all in the New Year.

Zhuang Ethnic Group
People of the Zhuang ethnic group generally live in southwestern China's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, also in Guizhou, Yunnan and Guangdong provinces. It is the Zhuang custom to spend Lunar New Year's Eve preparing sticky rice, which augurs good luck and prosperity. The next morning, everyone gets up early, dresses in new clothes and gathers to set off firecrackers that frighten off any malevolent spirits on the first day of the new year. It is also customary for women of the Zhuang ethnic minority to bring "new water" from a well or river, symbolic of a new year of life, to the household.

Buyi Ethnic Group
Families of the Buyi ethnicity spend Lunar New Year's Eve beside the village pond. At New Year's daybreak young Buyi women compete to draw the most water from the pond in the shortest time. The happy winner is the most hardworking girl.

Man Ethnic Group
There are four subdivisions of the Man ethnic group, known as the Red, Yellow, Blue and White Flags. At Spring Festival each group hoists its respective flag in auspicious welcome of the New Year.

Dong Ethnic Group
People of the Dong ethnic group generally live in southwestern China's Guizhou and Hunan provinces. At Spring Festival two Dong villages jointly stage a gala celebration of singing and dancing in the square to the accompaniment of the lusheng(a reed pipe instrument).

Bai Ethnic Group
People of the Bai ethnic group of southwestern China's Yunnan province welcome the Lunar New Year by igniting long bamboo tubes filled with gun powder. The bamboo bursts with a loud crack, which gives the custom its name fanggaosheng, meaning to launch. Tossing a Silk Ball is a popular Bai minority courting game at New Year.

Tujia Ethnic Group
The Tujia people dance the intricate hand waving dance at Spring Festival that celebrates life and vitality.

Lahu Ethnic Group
Taking a bath and preparing sticky rice is the Lahu minority custom on Lunar New Year’s Eve. On New Year's morning all family members, domestic animals included, eat the rice, which is also smeared on farming tools to invite prosperity in the coming Year.

Daur Ethnic Group
The Daur people live on the banks of the Nejiang river in northeastern China. On Lunar New Year's morning, the younger Daur villagers dress in new clothes and go out to pay respects to the village elders. They later visit their relatives' homes and eat braised rice-cakes.

Oroqen Ethnic Group
Families of the Oroqen ethnic minority exchange toasts on Lunar New Year's morning in celebration of Spring Festival. Horse races are held on the second and third day of the New Year, and on the 15th day each family holds a sumptuous feast. On the morning of the 16th day, the younger people kowtow to their elders, and all concerned smear cinders on one another's faces. This Oroquen custom is a way of expressing blessings to all and respect for village elders.

The Story of Spring Festival

Tradition has it that in ancient China there was a monster named “Year” with long tentacles on its head that was extremely ferocious. “Year” generally lived deep down on the ocean floor, climbing to the shore only on the Lunar New Year to devour livestock and people.

Because of this, every year on that day, people of every village, the old and the young alike, would flee to remote mountains to avoid being attacked by the beast.

This New Year’s Day, as the people of Peach Blossom Village were escorting the old and young to the safety of the mountains, an old man with a silvery beard and eyes that seemed to be sparkling came begging, his frame resting on a single walking-stick and his arms carrying a sack.

Some people in the town were sealing up their windows and doors, others were cleaning and preparing for the journey, still others were herding their livestock; the chaotic sounds of bustling, panicked people and horses were everywhere. No one thought to look after this old beggar.

An old granny from the town’s east end was the only person to give the old man a bite to eat and urge him to head up the mountain and avoid the beast. The old man smiled, stroking his beard, and said, “Granny, if you let me stay in this house for one night, I’m sure I can drive this ‘Year’ beast away.”

The old woman was shocked; looking closer she saw the beggar’s frame was hearty, that he looked spirited and poised. But when she continued to advise the man to go up the mountain, he simply smiled, saying nothing. The old lady felt it was hopeless; out of necessity she left her house and took asylum in the mountains.

At midnight, the “Year” monster burst into the village. He discovered that the scene was different than in years past; in the grandmother’s house on the east side of the village red strips of paper were pasted around the doorway, and inside the room a lone fire glowed brightly. The monster trembled, and let out a strange scream.

“Year” glared at the woman’s house for a moment, then screamed madly towards it. When he neared the doorway, the sudden “Bang! Pow!” of explosions filled the air. “Year” quivered and shook, unwilling to approach the house again.

As a matter of fact, the things “Year” feared the most were the color red, bright flames, and the sound of explosions. The door to the old woman’s house burst open, and in the doorway stood a man wrapped in a red cloak, laughing uproariously. “Year” turned pale with fright and helplessly jumped upwards.

The next day was the first of the new year; as the people hiding in the mountains returned to their homes they were shocked to see that everything in the village was safe and sound. Suddenly, the old grandmother realized what had happened, and hastily told the other villagers of the old beggar’s promise.

Everyone crowded towards the old woman’s home, all they could see were the red paper strips, some unburned bamboo still exploding “bang!” in the courtyard, and a red candle still flickering inside the room…

The villagers were wild with joy, to celebrate this auspicious event they put on new clothes and hats and visited the homes of their friends and family to share congratulations. This news spread quickly through the surrounding villages; soon everybody knew the way to banish the “Year” monster.

From then onward, every year on New Year’s Eve every family puts up red scrolls, sets of firecrackers, and keeps candles brightly lit, keeping watch during the night. When dawn comes, they still go to the houses of friends and family and exchange congratulations. This custom continued to spread and grow as it was passed down, and became Chinese people’s most important traditional festival.

Although traditions of celebrating the new year through sacrifices to the gods and ancestors may have started as early as the Shang dynasty (roughly 1600 B.C.E.-1000 B.C.E.), when the new year officially began doesn’t appear to have been fixed formally until the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.–220 C.E.). The tradition of writing couplets on red paper for the festival began in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 C.E.)and the tradition of posting 福 (happiness) on the door is from the Song Dynasty (960-1279 C.E.) or earlier. The tradition of spending New Year’s eve with ones family comes from the Wei-Jin period (220-420 C.E.)

Gong Fu Cha and the Tao of Tea

The earliest book on tea was written by Lu Yu between 760 CE and 780 CE (Tang Dynasty). The Classic of Tea: Origins & Rituals introduces the concepts of tea as a symbol for the harmony and mysterious unity of the universe.

In China, tea was first introduced as a medicine to the common people, becoming part of Daoism which expresses the unity of human beings and the natural world. By weaving tea into a way of life, one combines the material and human spirit of the universe. When tea became part of the royal family, its qualities became ceremonious and tea came to mean harmony, calm, etiquette and wisdom (Confucius). When tea became part of monastery life for Buddhist monks, tea acquired the qualities of meditation and purity. So, for Chinese, tea is not just tea, it is a combination of Chinese Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism.

In China, tea is a social process, a custom which involves not just the herbal or medicinal values of tea but social engagement. Guests are always served tea, no matter the time of day. Accompanying the tea are small dishes to enhance the tea and stimulate conversation among friends or guests. Besides just drinking tea, tea leaves are appreciated for flavor and texture and tea liquid is used to infuse cuisine with color, flavor and texture. Try marbled tea eggs in a teahouse for a sample. Teahouses became popular in the Ming Dynasty and became a place for small performances of music, play or song.

Religious Altars in Temples and Homes

In Hinduism, altars are also shrines to the gods, and therefore sacred. Offerings and sacrifices are made at these shrines, to the gods. A large shrine is found in the temple, or mandir, while smaller ones are found in the home. A Hindu shrine consists of images of the gods called murtis, and offerings to that god. There is usually also lights, pictures of saints and gurus, and offerings, often of food.

Taoist altars are erected to honor traditional deities and the spirits of ancestors. Taoist altars may be erected in temples or in private homes. Strict traditions describe the items offered and the ritual involved in the temples, but folk custom in the homes is much freer.

Nearly all forms of Chinese traditional religion involve baibai (拜拜)--bowing towards an altar, with a stick of incense in one's hand. (Some schools prescribe the use of three sticks of incense in the hand at one time.) This may be done at home, or in a temple, or outdoors; by an ordinary person, or a professional (such as a Daoshi 道士); and the altar may feature any number of deities or ancestral tablets. Baibai is usually done in accordance with certain dates of the Chinese lunar/solar calendar.

At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the gods and/or spirits of the departed. (For example, Qingming Festival and Ghost Festival.) This may include slaughtered pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear--not as a mere image, but as the actual item--in the spirit world, and be available for the departed spirit to use. In Taoist folk religion, sometimes chickens, pigs feet, and pig heads are given as offerings. But in orthodox Daoist practice, offerings should essentially be incense, candles and vegetarian offerings.

In Buddhism, a butsudan is an altar found in temples or homes. The butsudan is a wooden cabinet with doors that enclose and protect a religious image of the Buddha or the Bodhisattvas (typically in the form of a statue) or a mandala scroll, installed in the highest place of honor and centered. The doors are opened to display the image during religious observances. A butsudan usually contains subsidiary religious items—called butsugu—such as candlesticks, incense burners, bells, and platforms for placing offerings such as fruit. Some buddhist sects place "ihai," memorial tablets for deceased relatives, within or near the butsudan. Butsudans are often decorated with flowers.

The shrine is placed in the temple or home as a place of worship to the Buddha, the Law of the Universe, etc. Scrolls (honzon) or statues are placed in the butsudan and prayed to morning and evening. Zen Buddhists also meditate before the butsudan.

The original design for the butsudan began in India, where people built altars the size of skyscrapers as an offering-place to the Buddha. When Buddhism came to China and Korea, statues of the Buddha were placed on pedestals or platforms. the Chinese and Koreans built walls and doors around the statues to shield them from the weather. They could then safely offer their prayers, incense, etc. to the statue or scroll without it falling and breaking.

When the Japanese finally welcomed Buddhism after many years of Shintoism, they took in the religion along with the butsudan. As many new Buddhist sects came into being, the butsudan was placed in many temples. The Japanese took the plain walls and doors of the mainland shrines and elaborately embellished them, and the butsudan became the focal point of every temple. As time went on, people began installing butsudans into their homes.

In Shinto, altars are found in shrines. Originating in ancient times, himorogi are temporarily-erected sacred spaces or "altars" used as a locus of worship. A physical area is demarcated with branches of green bamboo or sakaki at the four corners, between which are strung sacred border ropes (shimenawa). In the center of the area a large branch of sakaki festooned with sacred emblems (hei) is erected as a yorishiro, a physical representation of the presence of the kami and toward which rites of worship are performed.

In more elaborate cases, a himorogi may be constructed by placing a rough straw mat upon the ground, then erecting a ceremonial eight-legged stand (hakkyaku an) upon the mat and decorating the stand with a framework upon which are placed sacred border ropes and sacred border emblems. Finally the sakaki branch is erected in the center of this stand as the focus of worship.

In Neo-Paganism there is a wide variety of ritual practice, running the gamut from a very eclectic Syncretism to strict Polytheistic reconstructionism. Many of these groups make use of altars. Some are constructed merely of rough-hewn or stacked stone, and some are made of fine wood or other finished material.

In Nordic Neo-Pagan practice, altars may be set up in the home or in wooded areas in imitation of the Hörgr of ancient times. They may be dedictated to Thor, Odin, or other Nordic deities.

A basic altar, called a Hörgr was used for sacrifice in Norse paganism. The Hörgr was constructed of piled stones, possibly in a wood (harrow), and would be used in sacrifices and perhaps other ceremonies as well.

A possible use of the hörgr during a sacrifice would be to place upon it a bowl of the blood of an animal sacrificed to a Norse deity (e.g. a goat for Thor, a sow for Freyja, a boar for Freyr), then dipping a bundle of fir twigs into it and waving the bundle in the form of the "hammer-sign" to spatter the participants with the blood. This would consecrate the attendees to the ceremony, such as a wedding.

The word "altar" (Greek: θυσιαστήριον) appears twenty-four times in the New Testament. Significantly, Hebrews 13:10 spoke of Christians having an altar of which those who follow the Jewish liturgy could not partake, a reference, it seems, to the Eucharist and the table/altar used by the early Church. In early and later Catholic theology it is a re-presentation, in the literal sense of the one sacrifice being made "present again." Hence, the table upon which the Eucharistic meal (the Bread and the Wine) is also called an altar.

Altars occupy a prominent place in the sanctuaries of many churches, especially those belonging to the ancient Christian traditions, such as the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Assyrian Churches. They are also found in many Protestant worship places. It plays a central role in the celebration of the Eucharist. A priest celebrates at the altar, on which the bread and the wine are placed.

The area around the altar is seen as endowed with greater holiness, and is usually physically distinguished from the rest of the church, whether by a permanent structure such as an iconostasis, a rood screen or altar rails, by a curtain that can be closed at more solemn moments of the liturgy, as in the Armenian Church, or simply by the general architectural layout. The altar is often on a higher elevation than the rest of the church. In Reformed and Anabaptist churches, a table, often called a "communion table", serves an analogous function. In some colloquial usage, the word "altar" is used to denote the altar rail also, although this usage is technically incorrect.

Architecturally, there are two types of altars: those that are attached to the eastern wall of the chancel, and those that are free-standing and can be walked around, for instance when incensing the altar.

In the earliest days of the Church, the Eucharist appears to have been celebrated on portable altars set up for the purpose. During the persecutions, the Eucharist was celebrated among the tombs in the catacombs, using the sarcophagi of martyrs as altars on which to celebrate. It is thought to be the origin of the tradition of placing relics beneath the altar.

When Christianity was legalized under Saint Constantine the Great, formal church buildings were built in great numbers, normally with free-standing altars in the middle of the sanctuary. Although in the days of the Jerusalem Temple the High Priest indeed faced east when sacrificing on Yom Kippur, the sanctuary within which he stood was located at the western end of the Temple. The Christian replication of the layout and the orientation of the Jerusalem Temple helped to dramatize the eschatological meaning attached to the sacrificial death of Jesus the High Priest in the Epistle to the Hebrews." The ministers (bishop, priests, deacons, subdeacons, acolytes), celebrated the Eucharist facing east, towards the entrance. After the sixth century the contrary orientation prevailed, with the entrance to the west and the altar at the east end. Then the ministers and congregation all faced east during the whole celebration; in the Middle Ages of Western Europe altars began to be permanently placed against the east wall of the chancel.

Xiantianism

The Way of Former Heaven (or Hsien-t'ien tao or Xian Tian Dao , 先天道) encompasses five religious groups of Chinese origin. They claim to strive for the unification of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. The sect can be traced back to the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). It is usually referred as White Lotus or 'Motherist' or 'Maternist sectarianism'.

Xian Tian Tao doctrine believes the creator of the universe was Wu Sheng Lao Mu 無生老母 (The Unborn or Venerable Mother) which created all live beings, 9.6 billion in total. These children went astray and ended up in the earthly world where they forgot their divine origin. The wheel of reincarnation started and the return to heaven was no longer possible. For this reason, the merciful Venerable Mother sent a range of envoys to bring Her children back to Heaven. The Dipankara (or Dipamkara) Buddha 燃燈佛 (Ran Teng Fo) saved 200 million suffering children as the first salvage. Sakyamuni or Gautama Buddha afterwards saved another 200 million. The remaining 9.2 billion live beings will be saved by the Buddha of the future, Maitreya Buddha.

The individual Hsien-tien Tao sects all see themselves as carrying out the Mother's intentions by converting people and guiding them on a path of cultivation and reform that will ultimately lead them back to Heaven. The cultivation urged on members is divided into "inner" and "outer" work (nei kung, wai kung), i.e., meditation and good deeds, so as to accumulate merits and purify the mind. As the focus is on a primordial deity superior to all other gods, Hsien-t'ien Tao sects claim to represent a Way (Tao) that transcends and unites all other religions. Consequently, an explicit syncretism is a noticeable feature of these groups, who claim that their teachings aim to unify the "Three Religions" (Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism), the "Five Religions" (the former three plus Christianity and Islam), or even the "Ten thousand Religions". Most Hsien-tien Tao groups rely heavily on spirit-writing as a means of communicating with the Mother and lower-ranking deities.

Along with the written works of the founding patriarchs, spirit-writing provides a distinct corpus of scriptures for each individual sect, that develops the shared themes in different directions and serves to differentiate the individual group from related sects. The variations on the central theme are many: for example, different sects use different names for the supreme deity, the I-Kuan Tao and the T'ung-shan She calling her "Venerable Mother of Limitless Heaven" (Wu-chi Lao-mu), the Tz'u-hui Tang "Golden Mother of the Jasper Pool" (Yao-ch'ih Chin-mu), the Tien-te Sheng-chiao "Unborn Sacred Mother" (Wu-sheng Sheng-mu). The Daoyuan (or Tao Yuan) diverges from the common maternal pattern by describing the supreme deity as male, naming him "Most Sacred Venerable Patriarch of Former Heaven" (Chih-sheng Hsien-t'ien Lao-tsu). Despite these and many other differences in liturgy, organization, and doctrine, ultimately each Hsien-t'ien Tao sect represents a variation on a central theme.

Manichaeism

Manichaeism (in Modern Persian آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móní Jiào) was one of the major Iranian Gnostic religions, originating in Sassanid Persia. Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani (AD 210–276) have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. Manichaeism thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. Manichaeism appears to have died out before the sixteenth century in southern China.

The original six sacred books of Manichaeism, composed in Syriac Aramaic, were soon translated into other languages to help spread the religion. As they spread to the east, the Manichaean writings passed through Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, and ultimately Uyghur and Chinese translations. As they spread to the west, they were translated into Greek, Coptic, and Latin. The spread and success of Manichaeism were seen as a threat to other religions, and it was widely persecuted in Christian, Zoroastrian, Buddhist, and later, Islamic areas.

Mani lived approximately AD 210–276 and resided in Babylon, which was then a province of the Persian Empire. According to the Cologne Mani-Codex, Mani's parents were Elcesaites of southern Mesopotamia. The primary language of Babylon at that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic, which included three main dialects: Judeo-Aramaic (the language of the Talmud), Mandaean Aramaic (the language of the Mandaean religion), and Syriac Aramaic, which was the language of Mani, as well as of the Assyrian Christians. "Mani" is a Persian name found in all three Aramaic dialects and therefore common among its speakers. Mani composed seven writings, six of which were written in Syriac Aramaic. The seventh, the Shabuhragan,was written by Mani in Middle Persian and dedicated to the contemporary King of Sassanid Persia, Shapur I, who was a strong supporter of Manichaeism and encouraged its spread throughout his empire. Mani also created a unique version of the Syriac script called Manichaean script, which was used in all of the Manichaean works written within the Persian Empire, whether they were in Syriac or Middle Persian, and also for most of the works written within the Uyghur Empire.

Manichaeism claimed to present the complete version of teachings only revealed partially by previous teachers. Accordingly, as it spread, it adapted new deities from other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures. Its original Aramaic texts already contained stories of Jesus. When they moved eastward and were translated into Iranian languages, the names of the Manichaean deities (or angels) were often transformed into the names of Zoroastrian yazatas. Thus Abbā dəRabbūṯā ("The Father of Greatness", the highest Manichaean deity of Light), in Middle Persian texts might either be translated literally as pīd ī wuzurgīh, or substituted with the name of the deity Zurwān. Similarly, the Manichaean primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā "The Original Man" was rendered "Ohrmazd Bay", after the Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda. This process continued to Manichaeism's meeting with Chinese Buddhism, where, for example, the original Aramaic "karia" (the "call" from the world of Light to those seeking rescue from the world of Darkness), becomes identified in the Chinese scriptures with Guan Yin (觀音, literally, "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion).

The original six Syriac writings are not preserved, although their Syriac names have been. There are also fragments and quotations from them. A long quotation, brought by the Syrian Nestorian Christian, Theodor bar-Konai, in the eighth century, shows that in the original Syriac Aramaic writings of Mani there was no influence of Iranian or Zoroastrian terms. The terms for the Manichaean deities in the original Syriac writings are in Aramaic. The adaptation of Manichaeism to the Zoroastrian religion appears to have begun in Mani's lifetime however, with his writing of the Middle Persian Shabuhragan, his book dedicated to the King Shapuhr. In it, there are mentions of Zoroastrian deities such as Ohrmazd, Ahriman, and Az. Manichaeism is often presented as a Persian religion, mostly due to the vast number of Middle Persian, Parthian, and Soghdian (as well as Turkish) texts discovered by German researchers near Turfan, in the Xinjiang (Chinese Turkestan) province of China, during the early 1900s. As far as its origins are concerned, however, Manichaeism was no more a Persian or Iranian religion than Talmudic Judaism or Babylonian Mandaeism/Mandaeanism, which were also written in Aramaic in Babylon in roughly the third century AD.

Mani began preaching at an early age and was likely influenced by Mandaeanism. According to biographies preserved by Ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni, he allegedly received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his Twin, his Syzygos, his Double, his Protective Angel or 'Divine Self'. It taught him truths which he developed into a religion. His 'divine' Twin or true Self brought Mani to Self-realization and as such he becomes a 'gnosticus', someone with divine knowledge and liberating insight. He claimed to be the 'Paraclete of the Truth', as promised in the New Testament: the Last Prophet and Seal of the Prophets finalizing a succession of figures including Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus. In the Orthodox Tradition the title Paraclete was understood to refer to God in the person of the Holy Spirit.

Manichaeism continued to spread with extraordinary speed through both the east and west. It reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq by AD 280, who was also in Egypt in 244 and 251. It was flourishing in the Fayum area of Egypt in AD 290. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 A.D. during the time of the Christian Pope Miltiades.

In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II, and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In AD 296, Diocletian decreed against the Manichaeans: "We order that their organizers and leaders be subject to the final penalties and condemned to the fire with their abominable scriptures", resulting in many martyrdoms in Egypt and North Africa (see Diocletian Persecution). By AD 354, Hilary of Poitiers wrote that the Manichaean faith was a significant force in southern France. In AD 381 Christians requested Theodosius I to strip Manichaeans of their civil rights. He issued a decree of death for Manichaean monks in AD 382.

When Christians first encountered Manichaeism, they deemed it a heresy, since it had originated in a heavily Gnostic area of the Persian empire. Augustine of Hippo (AD 354-430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism, in the year 387. This was shortly after the Roman Emperor Theodosius I had issued a decree of death for Manichaeans in AD 382 and shortly before he declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire in 391. According to his Confessions, after eight or nine years of adhering to the Manichaean faith as a member of the group of "hearers", Augustine became a Christian and a potent adversary of Manichaeism, seeing their beliefs that knowledge was the key to salvation as too passive and not able to effect any change in one's life.

Holy Maya, Mother of Buddha, Have Mercy on Us

Queen Māyā and King Suddhodhana did not have children for twenty years into their marriage. One day however, according to legend, Queen Māyā dreamt of a divine Bodhisattva on white elephant touching her side, and became pregnant. According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha-to-be was residing as a Bodhisattva, in the Tuṣita heaven, and decided to take the shape of a white elephant to be reborn, for the last time, on Earth. Māyā gave birth to Siddharta c. 563 BCE. The pregnancy lasted ten lunar months. Following custom, the Queen returned to her own home for the birth. On the way, she stepped down from her palanquin to have a walk in the beautiful flower garden of Lumbini Park, Lumbini Zone, Nepal. She was delighted by the park and she reached for a branch to take a rest. Again according to legend, at this time Prince Siddhārtha emerged from her right side and was born. It was the eighth day of April. She gave him his first bath in the Puskarini pond in Lumbini Zone. Siddhārtha means "He who has accomplished his goals" or "The accomplished goal".

Queen Māyā died seven days after the birth of the Buddha-to-be, and went to the Tuṣita Heaven. Her sister Prajāpatī (Pāli: Pajāpatī or Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī) became the child's foster mother.

After Prince Siddhartha had gained perfection and became the Buddha, he visited his mother in heaven for three months to pay respects and to teach the Dharma.

Some interpretations of the life story of the Buddha attribute his birth to a virgin birth. This is likely due to a specific interpretation of the prophetic dream Queen Māyā is said to have had prior to conception and is not a widely held view amongst Buddhists. The conception of the Buddha is often held to have occurred without sexual activity. This interpretation has led to parallels being drawn with the birth story of Jesus.

The story of the birth of the Buddha was known in the West, and some even say that it possibly influenced the story of the birth of Jesus. Saint Jerome (4th century CE) mentions the birth of the Buddha, who he says "was born from the side of a virgin". Also a fragment of Archelaos of Carrha (278 CE) mentions the Buddha's virgin-birth.

Other interesting parallels in the birth stories include:

• The similarity in the sounds of the names of Mary (Aramaic: מרים, Maryām) and Maya.


• Maya conceived during a dream, Mary conceived around the time of a visitation from an angel.


• Both women gave birth "outside" of a home.


• Heavenly wonders appeared in the sky.


• Heavenly beings (angels or devas) announced the newborn as "savior" of the world.


• Sages came to visit the newborn and make prophecies of auspicious careers.

How the Christian Denominations Came to be in China

In the Ninth Year of Jingguan (635 A. D.) during the reign of the Taizhong Emperor of the Tang Dynasty, a hieromonk from the Persian Empire by the name of Alopen, bearing scriptural texts (probably in Syriac), arrived at the imperial capital of Chang-An (Xian). He was received favorably by the Tang authorities, who granted facilities for a place of worship to be erected for him and his co-religionists. The Tang was one of the most open of Chinese dynasties, and Buddhist records state three temples were built in the imperial capital at that time for three different religions of Persian origin. Alopen's temple, however, was later renamed the temple of "Roman" origin because, it is believed, his religion, which spoke of a virgin giving birth to the Holy One in the Roman Empire, came originally not from the empire of the Persians, but from a province of Rome.

From a historical perspective, Alopen's arrival in China in 635 was in the nick of time. Mohammed's Hegira to Medina took place in 622, marking the beginning of Islam's expansion, and in 642 the Persian Empire fell to Muslims. Adherents of Nestorian Christianity, who traditionally practiced their religion in lands east of the Byzantine Empire, were no longer to find Persia a safe haven or power base thereafter.

And yet Nestorian Christianity survived in China for at least two more centuries, and made a brief comeback under the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty (1277 - 1368) because some Mongols at the time of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan were Nestorians. We know Alopen's religion was Nestorian Christianity because of the famous "Nestorian Tablet" unearthed in Xian in 1625 (now in the Xi'an Museum), giving an account of the earlier years of the religion, and from the 1909 discovery of Nestorian Chinese-language scriptural texts sealed in the Dunhuang caves in northwest China. The tablet unearthed in 1625 gives the Second Year of Jianzhong (781 A. D.) as the year of its erection and bears some Syriac writing in addition to its Chinese script.

Nestorian Christianity did not survive in China and Mongolia. The general perception in China was that it was a foreigners' religion. It was a minority religion among Mongols, all of whom eventually embraced tantric Buddhism.

It was during the Yuan Dynasty - a period of substantial territorial expansion spearheaded by Mongol horsemen - that Roman Catholic missionaries first made contact with China. The earliest missionaries were Franciscans. Pope Nicholas IV sent John of Monte Corvino as the head of a missionary delegation which arrived in Beijing in 1289, where he died in 1328. The Franciscan efforts continued through 1346, with the departure of John of Marignolli for Avignon. Despite the fact that there were Chinese converts, Roman Catholicism died out in China until the return of Jesuit missionaries during the Ming Dynasty, under the leadership of Matteo Ricci who arrived in Macao in 1580. Thereafter, Roman Catholicism slowly began to take root.

Roman Catholic missionary priests were often valued calendrists, astronomers, cartographers and engineers in the imperial court. One achievement of four centuries of Roman Catholic missionary experience in China was the resolution of the Chinese traditions and rites controversy. The Jesuits made substantial headway initially in accommodating the Chinese veneration for ancestors and Confucius. The Dominicans and Franciscans who arrived in the 17th century questioned the accommodations reached.

The disputes embroiled numerous Popes who were asked to rule on practices in China: could Catholics take part in rituals honoring Confucius? Could they burn incense before wooden tablets bearing the names of their ancestors to show veneration? Pope Clement XI's 1704 decision against the Jesuits, formalized in his 1715 encyclical "Ex Illa Die" and reinforced by Pope Benedict XIV's decision in 1742 to ban further discussions, brought the matter to a head. The Kangxi (Kang Hsi) Emperor, one of Qing China's greatest emperors, ordered the expulsion of Catholic missionaries in 1721. He made clear in a written edict copied to the Pope that practices flowing from those instituted by the Jesuit Matteo Ricci were acceptable, but that subsequent hierarchs who challenged Chinese tradition were ignorant of the Chinese language and classics. The ban imposed by Rome was not lifted till 1939, when Pope Pius XII authorized Chinese Catholics to venerate their ancestors and Confucius in public ceremonies.

Protestantism arrived much later, but achieved impressive successes because of the evangelical zeal of a number of major denominations. The first arrival was the Rev. Dr. Robert Morrison, who was sent by the London Missionary Society. He arrived in Macao in 1807 and devoted his life to work among the Chinese. He and his assistant William Milne are remembered for their leadership and work in rendering the Old and New Testaments into Chinese, a project completed in 1819. Dr. Morrison died in Guangdong in 1834 and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery in Macao.

On the heels of Dr. Morrison, Protestant missionaries from many denominations started arriving in China in the first half of the 19th century. They came from Britain, the United States, Germany, Switzerland, Canada and Scandinavia, and included Presbyterians, Baptists, Methodists, Congregationalists, Seventh Day Adventists, Lutherans, Quakers, German and Swiss Evangelicals (the Basel and Rhenish mission societies), as well as many others. There were (and are) missions set up and based in Western countries whose main purpose was to evangelize China. The Bible Societies and the YMCA and YWCA also became established in China. The Anglican church set up dioceses in Hong Kong and Shanghai which became bases of mission work.

Long years of missionary work by both Roman Catholics and Protestants bore fruit in that, unlike Nestorianism, they did not die out. When the Communist Party took control of mainland China in 1949 it found that both religions were well entrenched in China, particularly among the better-educated Chinese. In accordance with communist practice, the state extended recognition to them by legally registering them as valid religions and putting them under the supervision of the religious affairs bureau. This entailed the severance of the Roman Catholic Church in China from leadership and administration by the See of Rome, and the state-guided merger of all Protestants into a "Three-Self" Patriotic church movement. Nevertheless Christian faith and practice continued, even through the most difficult days of the Cultural Revolution, and the churches have today re-emerged with renewed vigor as China develops into a more open society. They now constitute two of the five "religions" recognized by the Chinese state (the other three are Buddhism, Taoism and Islam).

Recent official documents in the Mainland are said to assess the number of Protestants at close to 30 million - many more than in 1949 - and the number of Catholics at more than eight million (the Church of Rome puts the figure at about 10 million, including both "underground" and "open" church Catholics). The documents further point out that even Communist Party members are known to take part in religious services - it is estimated that more than one million party members have joined religious groups.

Chinese Folk Religion

Chinese folk religion is composed of a combination of religious practices, including Confucianist ceremonies, ancestor worship, Buddhism and Taoism. Chinese folk religion also retains traces of some of its ancestral neolithic belief systems which include the veneration of (and communication with) the sun, moon, earth, the heaven, and various stars, as well as communication with animals. It has been practiced alongside Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism by Chinese people throughout the world for thousands of years.
Ceremonies, veneration, legends, festivals and various devotions associated with different folk gods/deities and goddesses form an important part of Chinese culture even today. The veneration of secondary gods does not conflict with an individual's chosen religion, but is accepted as a complementary adjunct to Buddhism, Confucianism or Taoism. Some mythical figures in folk culture have even been integrated into Buddhism as in the case of Miao Shan who is generally thought of having evolved into the Buddhist bodhisattva Kuan Yin. Other folk deities may date back to pre-Buddhist eras of Chinese history. The Chinese dragon is one of the key religious icons in these beliefs.

There are hundreds of gods and goddess as well as "saints," immortals and demigods. Historical figures noted for their bravery or virtue are also venerated and honored with their own festivals after they are apotheosized. The following list represents some commonly worshiped deities:

(Note: This list is incomplete and should not be considered a full representation)

• Guan Yu (關羽), the red-faced, bearded hero of Romance of the Three Kingdoms
  and symbol of loyalty. He is the patron god of policemen and law, and gangsters, as he shows forgiveness, and often also serves as "Wu Sheng".


• Baosheng Dadi (保生大帝), the "Great Emperor Protecting Life." A divine physician, whose powers extend to raising the dead. Worship is especially prevalent in Fujian and Taiwan Provinces.


• Cai Shen (財神 "god of wealth"), named Gongming Zhao, who oversees the gaining and distribution of wealth through fortune. He is often the deified manifestation of certain historical personalities. His shape is that of a giant blue whiskered cat.


• Shou Xing (寿星 "god of longevity"), who stands for a healthy and long life. He is portrayed as an old baldy man with a walking stick in his right hand and a peach in his left.


• Fu Shen (福神 "god of happiness"), he looks like a traditional Chinese feudal lord with red clothing. He symbolizes happiness and joy. The god of wealth, god of longevity and god of happiness are often paired as the 3 fortune gods


• The Eight Immortals (ba xian, 八仙) are important literary and artistic figures who were deified after death, and became objects of worship.


• Hu Ye (虎爺 "Lord Tiger"), a guardian spirit.


• Jiu Wang Ye (九皇爺 "Nine Emperor God") refers to spirits of nine emperors, worshiped as emanations of Mazu, patron goddess of sailors. A festival is held over the first nine days of the ninth lunar month to celebrate the return from heaven to earth of the Nine Emperor spirits.


• Mazu (媽祖), the patroness, also considered as the goddess of sailors. Shrines can be found in coastal areas of Eastern and South-Eastern China. Today, belief in Mazu is especially popular in the South and South-East, including Fujian (福建), Guangdong (廣東), Hainan (海南), Taiwan (台灣), Hong Kong (香港), and Vietnam (越南).


• Qiye (七爺 "Seventh Lord") and Baye (八爺 "Eighth Lord"), two generals and best friends, often seen as giant puppets in street parades. 8 is black, because he drowned rather than miss his appointment to meet with 7, even though a flood was coming. 7 has his tongue sticking out, because he hanged himself in mourning for 8.


• Shangdi Shangdi (上帝 "Supreme Emperor") is originally the supreme god, synonymous with the concept of Tian. This title/name was later applied to the supreme deity of various religions, including Yu Huang Dadi and the Christian God.


• Cheng Huang (城隍), a class of protective deities: Each city has a Cheng Huang who looks after the fortunes of the city and judges the dead. Usually these are famous or noble persons from the city who were deified after death. The Cheng Huang Miao (城隍廟) or "Shrine of the Cheng Huang" was often the focal point of a town in ancient times.


• Sun Wukong (孫悟空，齊天大聖; "The Monkey King" or "Great Sage Equaling Heaven") is the stone monkey born from heaven and earth who wreaked havoc in heaven and was punished by the Buddha under the five fingers mountain for 500 years. Released by the Tang Monk, Xuanzang (or Tang Sanzang), he traveled under Xuanzang as his disciple to the Thunder Monastery in the West (presumably India) for the Buddhist scriptures to redeem himself. Depending on which version of the Journey to the West legend, where Sun Wukong supposedly originates, Sun Wukong is only sometimes referred to as an actual god.


• Tu Di Gong (土地公 tǔ dì gōng "God of the earth"), a genius loci who protects a local place (especially hills), and whose statue may be found in roadside shrines. He is also the god of wealth, by virtue of his connection with the earth, and therefore, minerals and buried treasure.


• Wenchangdi (文昌帝 "Emperor Promoting Culture"), god of students, scholars, and examination. He is worshiped by students who wish to pass their examinations. Inept examiners in ancient times sometimes sought "divine guidance" from him to decide rank between students.


• Xi Wangmu (西王母 "Queen Mother of the West"), who reigns over a paradisaical mountain and has the power to make others immortal. In some myths, she is the mother of the Jade Emperor (玉帝).


• Yuexia Laoren (月下老人 "Old Man Under the Moon"). The matchmaker who pairs lovers together, worshiped by those seeking their partner.


• Zao Shen (灶君|灶神), the 'Kitchen God' mentioned in the title of Amy Tan's novel, The Kitchen God's Wife. He reports to heaven on the behavior of the family of the house once a year, at Chinese New Year, and is given sticky rice in order to render his speech less comprehensible on that occasion.


• Zhusheng Niangniang (註生娘娘 "Birth-Registry Goddess"). She is worshiped by people who want children, or who want their child to be a boy.

Confucianism: Founded by K'ung Fu Tzu

K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty, an era known for its moral laxity. Later in life, he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He accumulated a small band of students during this time. The last years of his life were spent back in Lu, where he devoted himself to teaching.

His writings deal primarily with individual morality and ethics, and the proper exercise of political power by the rulers.

In China, and some other areas in Asia, the social ethics and moral teachings of Confucius are blended with the Taoist communion with nature and Buddhist concepts of the afterlife, to form a set of complementary, peacefully co-existent and ecumenical religions.

There are approximately 6 million Confucians in the world. About 26,000 live in North America; almost all of the remainder are found throughout China and the rest of Asia.

Confucian ethical teachings include the following values:

• Li: includes ritual, propriety, etiquette, etc.
• Hsiao: love within the family: love of parents for their children and of children for their parents
• Yi: righteousness
• Xin: honesty and trustworthiness
• Jen: benevolence, humaneness towards others; the highest Confucian virtue
• Chung: loyalty to the state, etc.

Confucianism does not contain all of the elements of some other religions, like Christianity and Islam. It is primarily an ethical system to which rituals at important times during one's lifetime have been added.

Since the time of the Han dynasty (206 CE) four life passages have been recognized and regulated by Confucian tradition:

• Birth: The T'ai-shen (spirit of the fetus) protects the expectant woman and deals harshly with anyone who harasses the mother to be. A special procedure is followed when the placenta is disposed of. The mother is given a special diet and is allowed rest for a month after delivery. The mother's family of origin supplies all the items required by the baby on the first, fourth and twelfth monthly anniversary of the birth.
• Reaching Maturity: This life passage is no longer being celebrated, except in traditional families. It takes the form of a group meal in which the young adult is served chicken.
• Marriage: This is performed in six stages:
1. Proposal: the couple exchange the eight characters: the year, month, day and hour of each of their births. If any unpropitious event occurs within the bride-to-be's family during the next three days, then the woman is believed to have rejected the proposal.
2. Engagement: after the wedding day is chosen, the bride announces the wedding with invitations and a gift of cookies made in the shape of the moon.
3. Dowry: This is carried to the groom's home in a solemn procession. The bride-price is then sent to the bride by the groom's parents. Gifts by the groom to the bride, equal in value to the dowry, are sent to her.
4. Procession: The groom visits the bride's home and brings her back to his place, with much fanfare.
5. Marriage and Reception: The couple recite their vows, toast each other with wine, and then take center stage at a banquet.
6. Morning After: The bride serves breakfast to the groom's parents, who then reciprocate.
• Death: At death, the relatives cry out aloud to inform the neighbors. The family starts mourning and puts on clothes made of a coarse material. The corpse is washed and placed in a coffin. Mourners bring incense and money to offset the cost of the funeral. Food and significant objects of the deceased are placed into the coffin. A Buddhist or Taoist priest (or even a Christian minister) performs the burial ritual. Friends and family follow the coffin to the cemetery, along with a willow branch which symbolizes the soul of the person who has died. The latter is carried back to the family altar where it is used to "install" the spirit of the deceased. Liturgies are performed on the 7th, 9th, 49th day after the burial and on the first and third anniversaries of the death.

Buddhism in China

Buddhism was introduced from India into China in 6th Century AD. One of the Han Emperors sent a mission to the west of China and brought back the scriptures, Indian monks and the images of Buddha. Since then Chinese translation was made available and the further exchange of scholars among China, India and other Asian countries brought about the rapid development of Buddhism in China. Buddhist monasteries and temples were built to promote the Buddhism and some of the Emperors were also the followers of Buddhism. Buddhism, just like Confucianism and Taoism, guides people to behave, to be honest and responsible. It promotes harmony and peaceful mind, sharing and compassion. Buddhists never force people into their belief. Buddhism emphasizes in "awakening of mind". Through learning, one will develop intellectual capacity to the fullest so as to understand, to love and be kind to other beings.

It was not until the late fifth and early sixth centuries AD that Buddhism of a Dàshèng (Mahäyäna) sort was able to weave itself fully into the fabric of Chinese life. By then it had become a spiritual complement to secular Confucianism and had provided the idea of Enlightenment to Daoism. In time, the three schools of thought would be seen as a complementary unity. The maturity and great age of Buddhism in China was the Tang Dynasty when emperors spent their wealth to establish monasteries and sculptures in different Buddhist caves. But this age was not free of persecution, especially by Confucian oriented statesman that wanted to get rid of the foreign religion. Many people converted and entered a monastery to escape military service and tax paying.

The transition of the foreign religion into a Chinese one was made easy especially by the ideal of charity and compassion of Great Vehicle Buddhism. Both terms are quite similar to the Confucian idea of filial piety and the compassion of the ruler for his subjects. Other concepts of Buddhism are quite contrary to Confucianism (suffering - enjoying; celibacy - family; mendicant monks - productive farmers; monastic community - subordination under the state). Buddhism refers collectively to the various schools of Buddhism that have flourished in China since ancient times. These schools integrated the ideas of Confucianism, Taoism and other indigenous philosophical systems so that what was initially a foreign religion came to be a natural part of Chinese civilization albeit with its own unique character. Buddhism has played an enormous role in shaping the mindset of the Chinese people affecting as it has aesthetics, politics, literature, philosophy and medicine.

Buddhism does not require belief in God but it requires belief in People. In Buddhist teaching, there is no aggressive promotion of Buddhism or strong rejection of other religions. All these make Buddhism fall into the same scope of Confucianism and Taoist. Its ability to co-exist with any other religions makes it being developed into one of the largest religions in China.

The first Buddhist parishes are found in China in the 1st century AD and focused mainly on the suppression of passions by means of meditation, charity and compassion. The monastery claiming to have been the first in China is the White Horse Monastery (Baimasi) near Luoyang. Many similarities with Taoism made Buddhism look like another sect of Huang-Lao-Taoism; both religions have no sacrificial rites, believe both in immortality and operate with concentration, meditation and abstinence.

Buddhist practices to lead one into the ultimate happiness in life and even afterlife. Buddhism also promotes code of conduct in life. That is what they call Five Precepts of avoiding killing, stealing, indulging, lying and alcohol drinking. Buddhist teaching introduces the way and concepts of meditation, rebirth, intellectual development and comparisons. It leads to self-understanding, instead of blind believing.

In their world they believe that: "Giving up false speech he becomes a speaker of truth, reliable, trustworthy, dependable, he does not deceive the world. Giving up malicious speech he does not repeat there what he has heard here nor does he repeat here what he has heard there in order to cause variance between people. He reconciles those who are divided and brings closer together those who are already friends. Harmony is his joy, harmony is his delight, harmony is his love; it is the motive of his speech. Giving up harsh speech his speech is blameless, pleasing to the ear, agreeable, going to the heart, urbane, like by most. He speaks words worth being treasured up, seasonable, reasonable, well defined and to the point."

The Buddhist concepts are accepted universally in China. Apart from the beliefs of the Buddhist monasteries, there are four famous Buddhist Mountains in China: Putuo Mountain, Wutai Mountain, Emei Mountain, and Wutai Mountain.

Taoism – The Way: China’s home grown religion

道可道非常道 – Dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào

The Tao that can be expressed is not the true Tao.

These are the opening words of the Tao Te Ching (or Dao De Jing – 道德经 – Dàodéjīng), the key text of Taoism. Many say Taoism is the most important Chinese religion because Buddhism was not originally Chinese and Confucianism prefers to be called a philosophy.

Seeing as the Tao that can be expressed is not the true Tao, explanation of what it is seems rather futile, but we’ll have a go nevertheless. Tao translates roughly to ‘The Way’ and is a force which runs through and gives life and force to all things. The Tao is subtle but powerful. Some express it as the way of nature, the bond between man and nature. Taoism teaches that everything in the world is connected, but we just can’t see it because of our self centred viewpoint. The aim of the Taoist is to align himself with the Tao.

The only way to obtain the Tao is through contemplation and meditation and thus the Taoist rejects worldly affairs, material goods, ambition and luxury because all of these things interfere with the more important business of meditation. One enjoyable side effect of complete alignment with the Tao is immortality -something which made Taoism rather popular with Chinese Emperors. Taoism doesn’t really concern itself with morality, but it does say that wrongdoing is a consequence of losing sight of the Tao.

Taoism traces its roots back to Lao Tzu (or Lao Zi – 老子 – Lăozĭ). The name ‘Lao Tzu’ literally means ‘old boy’ supposedly because Lao Tzu was carried in the womb for 80 years before being born with white hair. Near the end of his life Lao Tzu decided to travel to the West in search of solitude, but before he left a gatekeeper asked him to write down the wisdom he had accumulated. Lao Tzu promptly whisked off the 5,000 word Tao Te Ching (also called ‘The Classic of the Way and its Power’, ‘Ethics’ or the ‘Dao De Jing‘) which became one of the classics of Chinese literature. Then he got on a water buffalo and rode off never to be seen again.

The Chinese Emperors of the Tang dynasty promoted Daoism and used claims of descendancy from Lao Tzu to justify their rule. Some Chinese fables claim that Lao Tzu and Confucius met but there’s no absolute evidence to support this idea.

Chuang Tzu (Zhuāngzi – 庄子) picked up where Lao Tzu left off, providing further illumination of the mysterious Tao through insightful and often amusing parables. The parables were collected together in a book which was named after him. The parable of the butterfly illustrates the Taoist views on the perception of reality:

One day Chuang Tzu dreamt he was a butterfly, forgetting he was Chuang Tzu at all. Later, he remembered that he was only Chuang Tzu dreaming of being a butterfly. But how could he know whether it was Chuang Tzu dreaming he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming it was Chuang Tzu?

Chuang Tzu was acknowledged as a great sage during his lifetime but rejected all offers of government office, preferring to spend his life in solitary contemplation.

In the tortoise parable, two envoys from the Kingdom of Chu approach Chuang Tzu while he is fishing and ask him to come and advise the King. Chuang Tzu says he has heard of a tortoise which lived for 3,000 years, and is now kept in a box in the palace and worshipped. Then he asked where did they think the tortoise would rather be, dead in a box but worshipped, or crawling around in the mud? They replied that the tortoise would rather be crawling around in the mud, so Chuang Tzu said he would stay by the river and fish.

The complicated philosophy of Taoism had great appeal to the scholarly class, but it was rather too inornate and remote for the majority. Consequently Taoism changed over time and acquired new features which added to its original incarnation as the no-frills, contemplative religion of the recluse. Among these features were a whole range of Gods and a system of priesthood. After the arrival of Buddhism in China, the Taoists established a pope-like position to vie for political influence. Taoism also became associated with exorcism, fortune telling and magic potions. Form its beginnings as a passive philosophy developed by a couple of hermits, Taoism developed into an organised religion.

Taoist sex practices have proved rather popular both in and outside of China. Taoists researched various sexual practices over many generations, supposedly with the aim of promoting longevity. According to Taoist beliefs, jīng (which is a form of qi) is dissipated by excessive ejaculation, so they developed various ways of controlling the amount they ejaculate. Another belief is that immortality can be attained through intercourse with virgins – something which countless Chinese Emperors tried to achieve over the ages. According to the autobiography of his doctor Li Zhisui, Chairman Mao Zedong also did his best to achieve immortality this way.